Abstract

Solar energy generation is significantly influenced by environmental factors such as solar irradiance, temperature, and wind velocity, all of which vary across different urban settings. Understanding these variations is essential for optimizing the performance of photovoltaic (PV) battery storage systems in cities. This study examines the effects of solar irradiance, temperature, and wind velocity on PV performance in three Ethiopian cities with varying urban densities. A mixed-methods approach was employed over six months, with data collected from PV systems installed on different building types in high-density City A, medium-density City B, and low-density City C. Key parameters—solar irradiance, temperature, battery charge/discharge cycles, and energy consumption—were continuously monitored, and statistical analyses, including multivariate regression, were performed using SPSS v13.0. City A recorded the highest irradiance (527 W/m²) and temperature (41 °C) but exhibited the lowest PV efficiency (15.2%) and the highest energy consumption (25 kWh/day), resulting in 18.6% storage losses and the fastest degradation rate (6.8% per year, ~3-year lifespan). City B showed balanced demand (22 kWh/day), higher efficiency (16.1%), lower losses (15.1%), and the slowest degradation (5.9% per year, ~3.3 years). City C achieved the highest efficiency (16.5%), stable consumption (20 kWh/day), the lowest state-of-charge variability (±4.5%), and the best net utilization (83.6%). Seasonal analysis revealed reduced efficiency but higher degradation during the dry season, whereas the rainy season improved round-trip battery efficiency to 94%. A strong positive correlation was observed between solar irradiance and short-circuit current (R² = 0.88–0.92). Wind velocity had minimal impact on PV performance, while higher ambient temperatures were associated with reduced energy output. Overall, optimizing PV–battery systems depends heavily on local environmental factors—particularly solar irradiance, temperature variations, and urban heat island effects. Tailored strategies based on urban density are therefore necessary to enhance PV efficiency and energy storage management in urban environments.

Keywords

Solar irradiance, Photovoltaic efficiency, Urban density, Battery storage performance, Environmental factors, PV degradation rate.

Cite this article

Maitra SK, Sadanandam K, Kumar VS, T H, Swathi G, Budidha N, Thrinath BS, Aegeegn DB. Impact of urban density on PV efficiency and battery degradation: a comparative assessment. International Journal of Advanced Technology and Engineering Exploration. 2025;12(132):1686-1699. DOI : 10.19101/IJATEE.2025.121220264

References

[1] Huang X, Wang H, Shan L, Xiao F. Constructing and optimizing urban ecological network in the context of rapid urbanization for improving landscape connectivity. Ecological Indicators. 2021; 132:1-17.

[2] Liu HY, Skandalos N, Braslina L, Kapsalis V, Karamanis D. Integrating solar energy and nature-based solutions for climate-neutral urban environments. Solar. 2023; 3(3):382-415.

[3] Cui H, Yang J, Lv B, Ding N. Ecological impacts of photovoltaic power plants: from perspective of atmosphere, soil, hydrology, and biodiversity. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 2025; 24:1057-79.

[4] Li X, Gou Z. Urban morphology and energy self-sufficiency: a comparative study of residential blocks in eight global cities. Cities. 2025; 166:106240.

[5] Lin F, Luo L, Gu Q, Hao S, Wang W. Revealing how urban morphology at urban planning and design stage influence energy using urban building energy model. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2025; 22:11443-58.

[6] Coccato S, Barhmi K, Lampropoulos I, Golroodbari S, Van SW. A review of battery energy storage optimization in the built environment. Batteries. 2025; 11(5):1-52.

[7] Njoku JN, Nkoro EC, Medina RM, Nwakanma CI, Lee JM, Kim DS. Leveraging digital twin technology for battery management: a case study review. IEEE Access. 2025; 13:21382-412.

[8] Li R, Tu Q, Feng H, Zou Z. Demand response-based battery energy storage systems design and operation optimization. Energy and Buildings. 2025; 338:115738.

[9] Gopinathan N, Gupta D, Shanmugam PK, Nersisson R, Gabriel GA, Daniel GE. Deep-cycle battery sizing and strategic battery management in solar-EV systems using UDDS drive cycles with real-time environment. Engineering Research Express. 2025; 7(3):1-26.

[10] Alatawi MN. Optimization of home energy management systems in smart cities using bacterial foraging algorithm and deep reinforcement learning for enhanced renewable energy integration. International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems. 2024; 2024(1):1-22.

[11] Liu B, Liu Y, Cho S, Chow DH. Urban morphology indicators and solar radiation acquisition: 2011-2022 review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2024; 199:114548.

[12] Li X, Shi J, Guo Y, Lin S, Niu X, Yang H, et al. Assessing the impact of urban morphology on BIPV potential in high-density urban area: a case study in Shanghai. In 6th international conference on building energy and environment 2025 (pp. 1-8). COBEE.

[13] Li D, Cui X, Shi L, Li Y. An overview of the research on the correlation between solar energy utilization potential and spatial morphology. Results in Engineering. 2024; 24:1-13.

[14] Rahman T, Alharbi T. Exploring lithium-ion battery degradation: a concise review of critical factors, impacts, data-driven degradation estimation techniques, and sustainable directions for energy storage systems. Batteries. 2024; 10(7):1-32.

[15] Dhanaselvam J, Rukkumani V, Saravanakumar K, Rajesh R. A critical review on key issues of performance degradation factors for lithium-ion batteries. In IOP conference series: earth and environmental science 2024 (pp. 1-14). IOP Publishing.

[16] Abouali M, Adhami S, Haris SA, Yuksel R. On the dendrite‐suppressing effect of laser‐processed polylactic acid‐derived carbon coated zinc anode in aqueous zinc ion batteries. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2024; 63(28):1-10.

[17] Xu H, Song X, Gu Y, Fan J, Liu J, Wang S. Failure mechanisms and design strategies for low-temperature solid-state metal batteries. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2025; 13(15):10388-414.

[18] Merollari J, Dervishi S. Analyzing the impact of urban morphology on solar potential for photovoltaic panels: a comparative study across various European climates. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2024; 115:105854.

[19] Tian J, Ooka R. Evaluation of solar energy potential for residential buildings in urban environments based on a parametric approach. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2024; 106:105350.

[20] Lindgren J, Lund PD. Effect of extreme temperatures on battery charging and performance of electric vehicles. Journal of Power Sources. 2016; 328:37-45.

[21] Iqbal MA, Riyad T, Oyon MS, Alam MS, Forhad S, Shufian A. Modeling and analysis of small-scale solar PV and li-ion battery-based smartgrid system. In 3rd international conference on advancement in electrical and electronic engineering (ICAEEE), Gazipur, Bangladesh 2024 (pp. 1-6). IEEE.

[22] Chen X, Ning D. FastInformer-HEMS: a lightweight optimization algorithm for home energy management systems. Energies. 2023; 16(9):1-17.

[23] Ahsan SM, Musilek P. Optimizing multi-microgrid operations with battery energy storage and electric vehicle integration: a comparative analysis of strategies. Batteries. 2025; 11(4):1-32.

[24] Butt HZ, Li X. Enhancing optimal microgrid planning with adaptive BESS degradation costs and PV asset management: an iterative post-optimization correction framework. Electric Power Systems Research. 2025; 247:111785.

[25] Geslin A, Xu L, Ganapathi D, Moy K, Chueh WC, Onori S. Dynamic cycling enhances battery lifetime. Nature Energy. 2025; 10(2):172-80.

[26] Zhu C, Zhang Y, Wang M, Deng J, Cai Y, Wei W, et al. Optimization, validation and analyses of a hybrid PV-battery-diesel power system using enhanced electromagnetic field optimization algorithm and ε-constraint. Energy Reports. 2024; 11:5335-49.

[27] Elazab R, Daowd M. A novel holistic metric for sustainability assessment of photovoltaic/battery systems. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1):1-16.https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=A+novel+holistic+metric+for+sustainability+assessment+of+photovoltaic%2Fbattery+systems&btnG=

[28] Mishra J, Shankar A. Optimizing wind-PV-battery microgrids for sustainable and resilient residential communities. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1):1-12.

[29] Liu Y, Li Q, Yang L, Mu K, Zhang M, Liu J. Urban heat island effects of various urban morphologies under regional climate conditions. Science of the Total Environment. 2020; 743:140589.

[30] Bamisile O, Acen C, Cai D, Huang Q, Staffell I. The environmental factors affecting solar photovoltaic output. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2025; 208:1-20.

[31] Han JY, Li SY, Chen YC. Estimation of solar photovoltaic efficiency under the urban heat island effect. Renewable Energy. 2025; 242:122492.

[32] Nasrollahi N, Rostami E. The impacts of urban canyons morphology on daylight availability and energy consumption of buildings in a hot-summer mediterranean climate. Solar Energy. 2023; 266:112181.

[33] Shareef S. The impact of urban morphology and building's height diversity on energy consumption at urban scale the case study of Dubai. Building and Environment. 2021; 194:107675.

[34] Deilami K, Kamruzzaman M, Liu Y. Urban heat island effect: a systematic review of spatio-temporal factors, data, methods, and mitigation measures. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2018; 67:30-42.

[35] Boccalatte A, Fossa M, Ménézo C. Best arrangement of BIPV surfaces for future NZEB districts while considering urban heat island effects and the reduction of reflected radiation from solar façades. Renewable Energy. 2020; 160:686-97.

[36] Wen Y, Li X, Hu W, Yang F, Yang K, Wang J. Experimental research on the temperature distribution characteristics of photovoltaic array. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2025; 265:125507.

[37] Khan A, Anand P, Garshasbi S, Khatun R, Khorat S, Hamdi R, et al. Rooftop photovoltaic solar panels warm up and cool down cities. Nature Cities. 2024; 1(11):780-90.

[38] Sarmah P, Das D, Saikia M, Kumar V, Yadav SK, Paramasivam P, et al. Comprehensive analysis of solar panel performance and correlations with meteorological parameters. ACS Omega. 2023; 8(50):47897-904.

[39] Ebhota WS, Tabakov PY. Influence of photovoltaic cell technologies and elevated temperature on photovoltaic system performance. Ain Shams Engineering Journal. 2023; 14(7):1-10.

[40] Seapan M, Hishikawa Y, Yoshita M, Okajima K. Temperature and irradiance dependences of the current and voltage at maximum power of crystalline silicon PV devices. Solar Energy. 2020; 204:459-65.

[41] Shaik F, Lingala SS, Veeraboina P. Effect of various parameters on the performance of solar PV power plant: a review and the experimental study. Sustainable Energy Research. 2023; 10(1):1-23.

[42] Xu G, Cai P, Tu Y, Kong H, Ke Z, Li Y, et al. Calibration for space solar cells: progress, prospects, and challenges. Solar RRL. 2024; 8(6):2300822.

[43] Yao G, Wang X, Xie C, Pang Y. Comparative analysis of building-applied and building-integrated photovoltaic system performance utilizing c-Si, CIS, and CdTe technologies in rural residences applications in cold regions of China: a case study in Xuzhou. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 2025; 17(2):025102.

[44] Wang W, Yang H, Xiang C. Green roofs and facades with integrated photovoltaic system for zero energy eco-friendly building–a review. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments. 2023; 60:1-8.

[45] Yin Z, Liu Z, Liu X, Zheng W, Yin L. Urban heat islands and their effects on thermal comfort in the US: New York and New Jersey. Ecological Indicators. 2023; 154:1-12.

[46] Li J, Luo Y, Wei S. Long-term electricity consumption forecasting method based on system dynamics under the carbon-neutral target. Energy. 2022; 244:122572.

[47] Gao D, Kwan TH, Dabwan YN, Hu M, Hao Y, Zhang T, et al. Seasonal-regulatable energy systems design and optimization for solar energy year-round utilization☆. Applied Energy. 2022; 322:119500.